ORIGINAL PAPER
Following changes in balance and cognitive performance on healthy middleaged people: Evaluation of the effect of two types of concurrent training
1
Sports Science Faculty, Tekirdag Namik Kemal University, Turkey
2
Prince Sultan University, Sport Sciences and Diagnostics Research Group, GSD-HPE Department, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Submission date: 2023-08-15
Acceptance date: 2023-11-28
Publication date: 2023-12-28
Hum Mov. 2023;24(4):98-109
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
Purpose:
The study aimed to compare the effects of two different concurrent training protocols applied to healthy middleaged individuals on balance parameters and cognitive functions.
Methods:
Thirty-three middle-aged adults voluntarily participated in this study. A randomised, between-group design (Strength+Aerobic Group [SAG] and control group Aerobic+Strength Group [ASG]) was used. After collecting data related to the main characteristics of the subjects (i.e., age, sex, medical history, smoking habits), the following assessments were made: Subjects’ physical activity level, balance parameters, and inhibition and attention indicators. The intervention lasted 13 weeks (2 sessions per week, 50 minutes per session).
Results:
Both protocols (SAG and ASG) significantly improved balance performance. However, as for the group-by-time interaction, no significant difference between the two groups were observed in any of the parameters assessed (F(1–31) = 0.843; 0.760; 0.612; 0.656; p > 0.05). Thus, it was found that participating in either the SAG or ASG groups had no significant influence on attention accuracy, reaction time, total number of matters processed (participants’ psychomotor speed), and non-marked letters (selective attention) (post-test–pre-test difference: F(1–31) = 0.239, 0.337, 0.738, 0.414; p > 0.05). It was also observed that both training programs resulted in similar improvements in all balance characteristics and cognitive parameters.
Conclusions:
It was found that the order of strength or aerobic exercises in the concurrent training for improving balance and cognitive parameters in healthy middle-aged individuals is not significant.
The study aimed to compare the effects of two different concurrent training protocols applied to healthy middleaged individuals on balance parameters and cognitive functions.
Methods:
Thirty-three middle-aged adults voluntarily participated in this study. A randomised, between-group design (Strength+Aerobic Group [SAG] and control group Aerobic+Strength Group [ASG]) was used. After collecting data related to the main characteristics of the subjects (i.e., age, sex, medical history, smoking habits), the following assessments were made: Subjects’ physical activity level, balance parameters, and inhibition and attention indicators. The intervention lasted 13 weeks (2 sessions per week, 50 minutes per session).
Results:
Both protocols (SAG and ASG) significantly improved balance performance. However, as for the group-by-time interaction, no significant difference between the two groups were observed in any of the parameters assessed (F(1–31) = 0.843; 0.760; 0.612; 0.656; p > 0.05). Thus, it was found that participating in either the SAG or ASG groups had no significant influence on attention accuracy, reaction time, total number of matters processed (participants’ psychomotor speed), and non-marked letters (selective attention) (post-test–pre-test difference: F(1–31) = 0.239, 0.337, 0.738, 0.414; p > 0.05). It was also observed that both training programs resulted in similar improvements in all balance characteristics and cognitive parameters.
Conclusions:
It was found that the order of strength or aerobic exercises in the concurrent training for improving balance and cognitive parameters in healthy middle-aged individuals is not significant.
REFERENCES (68)
1.
Aagaard P, Suetta C, Caserotti P, Magnusson SP, Kjær M. Role of the nervous system in sarcopenia and muscle atrophy with aging: strength training as a countermeasure. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 2010;20(1):49–64; doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01084.x.
2.
Borzuola R, Giombini A, Torre G, Campi S, Albo E, Bravi M et al. Central and peripheral neuromuscular adaptations to aging. J Clin Med. 2020;9(3):741; doi: 10.3390/jcm9030741.
3.
Narici MV, Maganaris CN, Reeves ND, Capodaglio P, et al. Effect of aging on human muscle architecture. J Appl Physiol. 2003;95(6):2229–2234; doi: 10.1152/ japplphysiol.00433.2003.
4.
Deschenes MR. Effects of aging on muscle fibre type and size. Sports Med. 2004;34(12):809–824; doi: 10.2165/ 00007256-200434120-00002.
5.
Hunter GR, McCarthy JP, Bamman MM. Effects of resistance training on older adults. Sports Med. 2004; 34(5):329–348; doi: 10.2165/00007256-200434050- 00005.
6.
Fleg JL, Morrell CH, Bos AG, Brant LJ, Talbot LA, Wright JG., et al. Accelerated longitudinal decline of aerobic capacity in healthy older adults. Circulation. 2005;112(5):674–862; doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA. 105.545459.
7.
Hollenberg M, Yang J, Haight TJ, Tager IB. Longitudinal changes in aerobic capacity: Implications for concepts of aging. J Gerontol A Biol Med Sci. 2006;61(8):851– 858; doi: 10.1093/gerona/61.8.851.
8.
Means KM, Rodell DE, O’Sullivan PS. Balance, mobility, and falls among community-dwelling elderly persons: effects of a rehabilitation exercise program. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;84(4):238–250; doi: 10.1097/ 01.phm.0000151944.22116.5a.
9.
Serby M, Yu M. Overview: depression in the elderly. Mt Sinai J Med. 2003;70(1):38–44.
10.
Caserotti P, Aagaard P, Simonsen EB, Puggaard L. Contraction- specific differences in maximal muscle power during stretch-shortening cycle movements in elderly males and females. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2001;84:206– 212; doi: 10.1007/s004210170006.
11.
Danneskiold-Samsøe B, Bartels EM, Bülow PM, Lund H, Stockmarr A, Holm CC. Isokinetic and isometric muscle strength in a healthy population with special reference to age and gender. Acta Physiol. 2009;197(s673):1–68; doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.2009.02022.x.
12.
Izquierdo M, Häkkinen K, Antón A, Garrues M, Ibañez J, Ruesta M, et al. Maximal strength and power, endurance performance, and serum hormones in middleaged and elderly men. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(9): 1577–1587; doi: 10.1097/00005768-200109000-00022.
13.
Cassilhas RC, Viana VAR, Grassmann V, Santos RT , Santos RF, Tufik S, Mello MT. The impact of resistance exercise on the cognitive function of the elderly. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(8):1401–1407; doi: 10.1249/ mss.0b013e318060111f.
14.
Marconcin P, Ihle A, Ferrari G, Gouveia ÉR, Peralta M, Santos T, et al. The effect of changes in physical activity behaviour on depressive symptoms among European older adults. Hum Mov. 2023;24(1):93–99; doi: 10.5114/ hm.2023.115037.
15.
Rubenstein LZ. Falls in older people: epidemiology, risk factors and strategies for prevention. Age Ageing. 2006; 35(Suppl2):37–41; doi: 10.1093/ageing/afl084.
16.
Bekfani T, Pellicori P, Morris DA, Ebner N, Valentova M, Steinbeck L, et al. Sarcopenia in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: impact on muscle strength, exercise capacity and quality of life. Int J Cardiol. 2016;222:41–46; doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2016. 07.135.
17.
Izquierdo M, Merchant RA, Morley JE, Anker SD, Aprahamian I, Arai H, et al. International exercise recommendations in older adults (ICFSR): expert consensus guidelines. J Nutr Health Aging. 2021;25(7):824–853; doi: 10.1007/s12603-021-1665-8.
18.
Fragala MS, Cadore EL, Dorgo S, Izquierdo M, Kraemer WJ, Peterson MD, et al. Resistance training for older adults: position statement from the National Strength and Conditioning Association. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(8):2019–2052; doi: 10.1519/JSC.000000000 0003230.
19.
Cooper R, Strand BH, Hardy R, Patel KV, Kuh D. Physical capability in mid-life and survival over 13 years of follow-up: British birth cohort study. BMJ. 2014;348: g2219; doi: 10.1136/bmj.g2219.
20.
Markov A, Hauser L, Chaabene H. Effects of concurrent strength and endurance training on measures of physical fitness in healthy middle-aged and older adults: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2023;53(2):437–455; doi: 10.1007/s40279-022-01764-2.
21.
McMorris T, Davranche K, Jones G, Hall B, Corbett J, Minter C. Acute incremental exercise, performance of a central executive task, and sympathoadrenal system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. Int J Psychophysiol. 2009;73(3):334–340; doi: 10.1016/j. ijpsycho.2009.05.004.
22.
Tomporowski PD. Methodological issues: research approaches, research design, and task selection. In: Exercise and Cognitive Function; Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons; 2009.
23.
Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS, Basak C, Szabo A, Chaddock L, et al. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(7):3017–322; doi: 10.1073/pnas. 1015950108.
24.
Fiedler MM, Peres KG. Functional status and associated factors among the elderly in a southern Brazilian city: a population-based study. Cad Saúde Pública. 2008; 24(2):409–415; doi: 10.1590/S0102-311X200800020 0020.
25.
Bull FC, Al-Ansari SS, Biddle S, Borodulin K, Buman MP, Cardon G, et al. World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Br J Sports Med. 2020;54(24):1451–1462; doi: 10.1136/ bjsports-2020-102955.
26.
Peig-Chiello P, Perrig WJ, Ehrsam R, Staehelin HB, Krings F. The effects of resistance training on well-being and memory in elderly volunteers. Age Ageing. 1998; 27(4):469–475; doi: 10.1093/ageing/27.4.469.
27.
Chang YK, Pan CY, Chen FT, Tsai CL, Huang CC. Effect of resistance-exercise training on cognitive function in healthy older adults: a review. J Aging Phys Act. 2012; 20(4):497–517; doi: 10.1123/japa.20.4.497.
28.
Saez de Asteasu ML, Martinez-Velilla N, Zambom-Ferraresi F, Casas-Herrero Á, Izquierdo M. Role of physical exercise on cognitive function in healthy older adults: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Ageing Res Rev. 2017;37:117–134; doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2017.05.007.
29.
Cai H, Li G, Hua S, Liu Y, Chen L. Effect of exercise on cognitive function in chronic disease patients: a metaanalysis and systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Clin Interv Aging. 2017;12:773–783; doi: 10.2147/CIA.S135700.
30.
Colcombe S, Kramer AF. Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study. Psychol Sci. 2003;14(2):125–130; doi: 10.1111/1467- 9280.t01-1-01430.
31.
Knight CA, Kamen G. Adaptations in muscle activation of the knee extensor muscles with strength training in young and older adults. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2001;11(6):405–412; doi: 10.1016/s1050-6411(01)000 23-2.
32.
Kamen G, Knight CA. Training-related adaptations in motor unit discharge rate in young and older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2004;59(12):1334–1338; doi: 10.1093/gerona/59.12.1334.
33.
Aagaard P, Simonsen EB, Andersen JL, Magnusson P, Dyhre-Poulsen P. Neural adaptation to resistance training: changes in evoked V-wave and H-reflex responses. J Appl Physiol. 2002;92(6):2309–2318; doi: 10.1152/ japplphysiol.01185.2001.
34.
Ferketich AK, Kirby TE, Alway SE. Cardiovascular and muscular adaptations to combined endurance and strength training in elderly women. Acta Physiol Scand. 1998;164(3):259–267; doi: 10.1046/j.1365-201X.1998. 00428.x.
35.
Pacholek M, Zemková E, Arnolds K, Šagát P. The Effects of a 4-Week combined aerobic and resistance training and volleyball training on fitness variables and body composition on STEAM students. Appl Sci. 2021; 11(18):8397; doi: 10.3390/app11188397.
36.
Izquierdo M, Häkkinen K, Ibañez J, Kraemer WJ, Gorostiaga EM. Effects of combined resistance and cardiovascular training on strength, power, muscle crosssectional area, and endurance markers in middle-aged men. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2005;94(1–2):70–75; doi: 10.1007/s00421-004-1280-5.
37.
Cadore EL, Pinto RS, Lhullier FLR, Correa CS, Alberton CL, Pinto SS, et al. Physiological effects of concurrent training in elderly men. Int J Sports Med. 2010; 31(10):689–697; doi: 10.1055/s-0030-1261895.
38.
Eddens L, van Someren K, Howatson G. The role of intra-session exercise sequence in the interference effect: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2018;48(1):177–188; doi: 10.1007/s40279-017-0784-1.
39.
Murlatis Z, Keneffel Z, Thalib L. The physiological effects of concurrent strength and endurance training sequence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Sports Sci. 2018;36(11):1212–1219; doi: 10.1080/026 40414.2017.1364405.
40.
Makhlouf I, Castagna C, Manzi V, Laurencelle L, Behm DG, Chaouachi A. Effect of sequencing strength and endurance training in young male soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(3):841–850; doi: 10.1519/ JSC.0000000000001164.
41.
Wilhelm EN, Rech A, Minozzo F, Botton CE, Radaelli R, Teixeira BC, et al. Concurrent strength and endurance training exercise sequence does not affect neuromuscular adaptations in older men. Exp. Gerontol. 2014; 60:207–214; doi: 10.1016/j.exger.2014.11.007.
42.
Silva JC, Brandão EM, Puga GM, Kanitz AC. The execution order of the concurrent training and its effects on static and dynamic balance, and muscle strength of elderly people. Motriz: Rev Educ Fis. 2022;28(2):e1022 0001922; doi: 10.1590/s1980-657420220001922.
43.
Kelly ME, Loughrey D, Lawlor BA, Robertson IH, Walsh C, Brennan S. The impact of exercise on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Res Rev. 2014;16: 12–31; doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2014.05.002.
44.
Bosy-Westphal A, Later W, Hitze B, Sato T, Kossel E, Gluer CC, et al. Accuracy of bioelectrical impedance consumer devices for measurement of body composition in comparison to whole body magnetic resonance imaging and dual X-ray absorptiometry. Obes Facts. 2008;1(6):319–324; doi: 10.1159/000176061.
45.
Craig CL, Marshall AL, Sjöström M, Bauman AE, Booth ML, Ainsworth BE, et al. International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35(8):1381–1395; doi: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000078924.61453.FB.
46.
Saglam M, Arikan H, Savci S, Inal-Ince D, Bosnak- Guclu M, Karabulut E, et al. International Physical Activity Questionnaire: reliability and validity of the Turkish version. Percept Mot Skills. 2010;111(1):278– 284; doi: 10.2466/06.08.PMS.111.4.278-284.
47.
Liviu M, Ilie M, Fernando G. Determination of balance parameters as physical training factors in Athletics. J Phys Educ Sport. 2018;18(supp5:306):2054–2057; doi: 10.7752/jpes.2018.s5306.
48.
Noble KG, McCandliss BD, Farah MJ. Socioeconomic gradients predict individual differences in neurocognitive abilities. Dev Sci. 2007;10(4):464–480; doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00600.x.
49.
Brickenkamp R, Zillmer E. d2 Test of Attention. Seattle, WA: Hogrefe and Huber Publishers; 1998; doi: 10.1037/t03299-000.
50.
Spreen O, Strauss E. A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press; 1998.
51.
Brzycki M. Strength testing – predicting a one-rep max from reps-to-fatigue. JOPERD . 1993;64(1):88–90; doi: 10.1080/07303084.1993.10606684.
52.
Pescatello LS (ed.). ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2014.
53.
Borg GA. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;14(5):377–81.
54.
Tanaka H, Monahan KD, Seals DR . Age-predicted maximal heart rate revisited. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 37(1):153–6; doi: 10.1016/s0735-1097(00)01054-8.
55.
Ulupınar S, Özbay S, Gençoğlu C, İnce İ. Performance differences between greco-roman and freestyle wrestlers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res. 2021;35(11):3270–9; doi: 10.1519/JSC.000 0000000004129.
56.
Cohen J. The effect size. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York: New York University; 1988:77–83.
57.
Sofi F, Valecchi D, Bacci D, Abbate R, Gensini GF, Casini A, Macchi C. Physical activity and risk of cognitive decline: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Intern Med. 2011;269(1):107–117; doi: 10.1111/j.1365- 2796.2010.02281.x.
58.
Guiney H, Machado L. Benefits of regular aerobic exercise for executive functioning in healthy populations. Psychon Bull Rev. 2013;20(1):73–86; doi: 10.3758/ s13423-012-0345-4.
59.
Johnson NF, Kim C, Clasey JL, Bailey A, Gold BT. Cardiorespiratory fitness is positively correlated with cerebral white matter integrity in healthy seniors. Neuroimage. 2012;59(2):1514–23; doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage. 2011.08.032.
60.
Morente-Oria H, Ruiz-Montero PJ, Chiva-Bartoll Ó, González-Fernández FT. Effects of 8-weeks concurrent strength and aerobic training on body composition, physiological and cognitive performance in older adult women. Sustainability. 2020;12(5):1944; doi: 10.3390/ su12051944.
61.
Cian C, Barraud PA, Melin B, Raphel C. Effects of fluid ingestion on cognitive function after heat stress or exercise- induced dehydration. Int J Psychophysiol. 2001; 42(3):243–251; doi: 10.1016/s0167-8760(01)00142-8.
62.
Parker SM, Erin JR, Pryor RR , Khorana P, Suyama J, Guyette FX, et al. The effect of prolonged light intensity exercise in the heat on executive function. Wilderness Environ Med. 2013;24(3):203–210; doi: 10.1016/j.wem. 2013.01.010.
63.
Wong KF, Teng J, Chee MWL, Doshi K, Lim J. Positive effects of mindfulness-based training on energy maintenance and the EEG correlates of sustained attention in a cohort of nurses. Front Hum Neurosci. 2018; 12:80; doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00080.
64.
Lee IM, Shiroma EJ, Lobelo F, Puska P, Blair SN, Katzmarzyk PT, et al. Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet. 2012; 380(9838):219–229; doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61 031-9.
65.
Sanchez-Lopez J, Silva-Pereyra J, Fernández T, Alatorre- Cruz GC, Castro-Chavira SA, González-López M, et al. High levels of incidental physical activity are positively associated with cognition and EEG activity in aging. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(1):e0191561; doi: 10.1371/ journal.pone.0191561.
66.
Best JR, Chiu BK, Liang Hsu C, Nagamatsu LS, Liu- Ambrose T. Long-Term Effects of resistance exercise training on cognition and brain volume in older women: results from a randomized controlled trial. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2015;21(10):745–756; doi: 10.1017/S135 5617715000673.
67.
Cai R, Chao J, Li D, Zhang M, Kong L, Wang Y. Effect of community-based lifestyle interventions on weight loss and cardiometabolic risk factors in obese elderly in China: A randomized controlled trial. Exp Gerontol. 2019;128:110749; doi: 10.1016/j.exger.2019.110749.
68.
Victorian Government. (2018–2019). Department of Health and Human Services annual report 2018–19. Melbourne, Australia: Victorian Government.
Share
RELATED ARTICLE
| eISSN: | 1899-1955 |
We process personal data collected when visiting the website. The function of obtaining information about users and their behavior is carried out by voluntarily entered information in forms and saving cookies in end devices. Data, including cookies, are used to provide services, improve the user experience and to analyze the traffic in accordance with the Privacy policy. Data are also collected and processed by Google Analytics tool (more).
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
